Musical Bars

Musical bars are the vertical lines you see in sheet music. You can also call them measures. We divide longer pieces of music to smaller pieces, i.e. bars. After each measure there is a bar line.

To be able to decide where a measure ends and the next one begins, you'll need to understand what time signature is. The time signature is those two numbers you'll find at the beginning of each line in sheet music. These numbers will tell you how many notes will go into each musical bar. The top number tells you how many beats there are in the measure. And the bottom number tells you what note gets the beat.

For example, if the time signature is 3/4, there will be 3 quarter notes in each bar (or mathematically equivalent notes - see the note lengths and rests page to see what I mean by mathematically equivalent notes).

Most contemporary music is 4/4 or 3/4 time but you can also find songs in 3/8 and 2/4 time.

If you get the task to decide where bar lines go in a piece of music, first check the time signature. Then simply start counting the notes and put a bar line where you need to.

For example, in 3/4 time, I would need a bar line after each three quarter notes (or equivalent). Then I'd start counting over again and put the second bar line after the second three quarter notes (or equivalent) and so on.

Be careful, however, because sometimes the time signature changes somewhere during the piece of music. If it does, you'll need to count the notes according to the new time signature until the end of the music or until there is a new time signature again.

At the end of each piece of music, you'll find a double bar line. It means that you've reached the end of the song or piece of music.

More Music Theory

How to Copyright A Song

It's easy to learn how to copyright a song. And it's important to understand why you should do it and what kind of rights you'll get when you go through the process.

Disclaimer: I'm not a lawyer. Don't take anything I say here as legal advice. I've collected this information as carefully as I could from professional resources but if you need legal advice, consult a lawyer.

What's Copyright?

When you copyright a song, nobody checks if the song is original. All a copyright does is prove the date of the registration.

You don't have to copyright a song for it to be "yours". Once you create something, you own the copyright. There's nothing you have to do. However, if you ever need to prove that it's your work, it's much easier to do if you have registered it at The Copyright Office. And you can do the registration any time, even for songs that you wrote 20 years ago. The effective date of registration is the date when the Copyright Office receives all the documents they need from you.

The song you register must be in a tangible form, of course. For example, you can submit it on paper (lyrics and sheet music) or on a "phonorecord" (a tape or a CD).

Although most songwriters know how to copyright a song, they do it only after the demo is done. Anyone stealing your song is quite unlikely. It rarely happens. Mostly the rich and famous are sometimes accused of copyright infringement but 99% of the time they are innocent and they can prove it.

What Are Your Rights?

If you'd like to learn how to copyright songs, you need to understand what rights you'll have once you do it:

✓ You can reproduce the copyrighted song (CD's, tapes and sheet music)

✓ You can create derivative works from the song (samples, compilations, etc.)

✓ Distribute it to the public, transfer ownership, rent, lease or lend it.

✓ You have the right to perform the song publicly (TV, radio, etc.), and collect royalties through one of the performing rights organizations, such as ASCAP, BMI or SESAC.

✓ You can display the copyrighted song publicly (karaoke, etc.)

What Can't You Copyright?

If you copyright a song, it doesn't mean that you own every little part of it for good. There are several things that you cannot copyright, no matter what:

▪ Ideas or concepts
▪ Titles or lines, phrases from your lyrics
▪ Chord progressions
▪ Rhythm patterns

How Long Does Copyright Last?

How long copyright lasts depends on when you created, published and registered the song. The laws on the 'how long does copyright last' page are valid in the United States.

Copyright Registration

Would you like to know how to copyright a song online? It's easy and I strongly recommend that you do it if you can because it's cheaper and simpler. The online registration costs $35 now. The paper version is $50. To find out how to copyright your song on the internet and what other ways are available, visit the 'Copyright on the Internet' page.

Cheaper Copyright Registration
If you'd like to save money, you can register your songs as a "collection" and give it all one title (and pay the fee of $35 or $50 for all of them together). You might also include the real titles of the songs but if someone would like to look up the copyright information of your song (to get in touch with you), they will find it only under the name of the "collection" and not the individual songs.


Poor Man's Copyright
Since registering copyright isn't cheap at all, some resourceful person/people invented the "poor man's copyright". It means that you send your song to yourself by registered mail. And when you get it, you don't open the envelope. This way the postal stamp will certify when the work was created. It's not such a good idea to do though. You might lose the envelope. Or maybe it just won't be a good enough evidence in an infringement trial. So this is not how to copyright a song properly.


How to Copyright a Song and Let the World Know About It
To make sure that it's clear to everyone that you own the copyright to a certain song, you should put a copyright notice on the sheet music or on any tangible product.


1. Put the © symbol somewhere, or write "copyright" or "copr.".
2. Include the year of the first publication of your song.
3. Write down the name of the owner(s) of the copyright.


Example: © 2010 John Smith


If your song is not in a tangible form but it's a CD or tape, you should do the same as in the previous case but instead of a © symbol, use a ℗ symbol, which is short for 'phonorecord'.


To find out more about how to copyright a song and how copyright works in this modern, digital era, I recommend that you read Allen Bargfrede and Cecily Mak's book, Music Law in the Digital Age. It's not only about regular copyright matters but also new issues, like delivering music on the internet, YouTube, MySpace, etc.


How to Register Copyright on the Internet 
How Long Does Copyright Last?

How To Read Music Notes

Fortunately, learning how to read music notes is not as difficult and mysterious as some might think. There are a few very simple rules/signs to remember. And if you learn or recognize those, voila, you can read music. You'll be able to play any song that you can get your hands on.

Notes

The following notes exist: A, B, C, D, E, F, G. They repeat up and down on the scale (or piano).

These notes also have sharp and flat versions. It means that A♯ (i.e. A sharp) is half a note (step) high than A and A♭ (i.e. A flat) is half a step lower than A.

There are also "en-harmonic" notes. It means that there is a note that has two different names. For instance, A♭ is the same note as G♯. It's an identical note, however, you can "approach" it in two ways.

The Staff

The five lines that you see in the sheet music is called the staff. You can place notes ON the lines and BETWEEN the lines. Sometimes if there is a particularly high or low note, you can even add one or more short lines below or above the original five.

The staff always contains several measures (or bars) that divide the music into small, comprehensible pieces. These measures are divided by bar lines.

At the end of the song, there are two lines, a thinner and a thicker one. It means that the music ends there.

This is the most basic step in learning how to read music notes.

Time Signatures

Often you'll find a time signature at the beginning of the staff (right after the clef sign). There are always two numbers there, one on the top and one on the bottom.

The top number shows you the number of beats in each measure (or bar). The bottom number tells you what kind of note gets a full beat. It's all maths. The most common time signatures in popular music are 4/4 and 3/4.

Note Lengths
Note lengths are one of the most important pieces of knowledge you can have if you want to learn how to read music notes. You'll find four main types of notes in sheet music. They show you how long you have to hold the notes when you play them:

If there is a 4/4 measure, for example, you can play any combination of notes as long as their values add up to 4 beats. You could play one half note (2 beats) and four eighth notes (another 2 beats) and this way get 4 beats. And you thought mathematics wasn't important for musicians? :)There are also so called "dotted notes". It's easy to recognize them: there is a little dot right after the note.

The dot increases the duration of the note by half of its original value. E.g. if a note lasts 2 beats, the dotted note lasts 2+1 that is 3 beats. Any number of dots may be added to a note, however, usually there is only one.Note: if we play several notes at the same time, we have a chord. More about chords and how to learn them in minutes here: Keyboard Chords


Key Signatures
You'll find the key signatures (a group of sharps and flats) at the beginning of the staff. They help you a lot in showing how to read music notes. Key signatures show you the key of the song and which notes are sharp or flat in that key. I've written a separate page about key signatures.


Octave Placement Notation
A piano contains 88 keys. That's a lot of octaves. And that's why sometimes you'll see octave placement notations in the sheet music. These signs are always followed by a dashed line which tell you how long this modification lasts.

Treble Clef
The treble clef is this famous and beautiful sign that you often see at the beginning of the staff (and as necklace pedants). It tells you what notes the different musical notes in that line correspond to.

The C that you can find on the first added (ledger) line below the lowest line in the staff is middle C. If you have a piano, you'll find this note around the middle.

An easy way to memorize line and space names in treble clef is to remember to spell FACE from bottom up (for the spaces) and memorize the following: Every Good Boy Does Fine because the first letters of it represent the notes on the lines.

Bass Clef
The bass clef is the other sign that you often see at the beginning of the staff. Just like the treble clef, it tells you what notes the different musical notes in that line correspond to.

The C that you'll find on the first ledger line above the highest line in the staff is middle C.

An easy way to memorize the letters for the bass clef lines and spaces is to remember Good Boys Do Fine Always (for the lines) and memorize the following: All Cows Eat Grass (for the spaces).

Why is there a separate staff for treble AND bass clef sometimes?
It's especially important to know for budding pianists who want to know how to read music notes. If there are two lines of staff (one treble and one bass line) in the song, it's made so that you can play the song on the piano. You must play the notes in the treble clef with your right hand, and the notes in the bass clef with your left hand. The bass line usually gives a rhythmic foundation to play under the main melody.


The Natural Sign
The natural sign looks like this: ♮. It indicates an unmodified pitch. Placed before a specific note, it cancels out a flat or sharp that's in the key signature or negates a sharp or flat established earlier in the bar.


Rests
Often there is a shorter or longer pause in music. Of course, there is a way to show it in sheet music.

Repeat Sign
A repetition of a musical passage is indicated by the use of a repeat sign. You need to repeat the music that's before this sign. It's essential to know for learning how to read music notes.

Tempo
The tempo tells you the speed of a song. It's measured in beats per minute (BPM). You'll find it at the beginning of the sheet music. There are two forms: "♪ = 76" or "76 BPM".


Triplets
A triplet is a grouping of three notes to a beat. Usually they contain three eighth notes. But it's a more advanced part of learning how to read music notes.

Ties
A tie is a curvy line that connects two notes. It means that the time values of the connected notes have to be added together. For example, a whole note tied with a half note in 4/4 time would mean it has to last 6 beats (4+2).

Grace Notes
Grace notes add color to the music. They are usually a half or a whole step below or above the note that follows. They are smaller than the "main" notes. However, grace notes are not that common but they are good to know about if you want to learn how to read music notes well.

First and Second Endings
They are a way of repeating a section of music but each time with a different ending. When you play it first, take the first ending, when you play it second, take the second ending.

Well, I guess this page must have answered most of your questions about how to read music notes. If you would like to familiarize yourself even more with reading music, I recommend:

✓ Learn & Master Piano or Learn & Master Guitar. They are comprehensive piano and guitar instruction courses that come with DVDs, CDs and a course book to help you master your instrument. I've used Learn and Master Piano and it's amazing. It takes you from a complete beginner to advanced level. It think it would've taken me at least 5 years to get to the place where you go can with this course in a couple of months.

✓ I also like The Everything Reading Music Book. It's a step-by-step introduction to understanding music notation and theory.


I borrowed the illustrations on this page from the Learn & Master Piano course book which contains even more details about how to read music notes.

Learn Thousands of Chords In Minutes HERE! 

More Music Theory 

Music Scale

A music scale is a series of notes, which ascend and descend in a specific order. Usually the notes of a scale belong to a single key. So they provide material for or being used to conveniently represent part or all of a musical work, together with the melody and harmony. Scales are ordered in pitch. The two most important categories in popular music are the major and minor scales.

Major Scales

Major scales sound bright and lively. All scales begin and end with the same note. For example, the F major scale begins with an F note and then ends with an F note. It's true for all the other keys.

A major scale consists of two whole steps, one half step, three whole steps then a half step again: WS-WS-HS-WS-WS-WS-HS (WH stands for whole step, HS stands for half step, i.e. a whole note and a half note.)

Only the C major scale HAS no sharps or flats in it.

So here are all the major scales:

Minor Scales

A minor music scale sounds melancholic. melancholic. There are three types of minor scales:

Natural Minor Scale

Here are all the natural minor scales:

Natural minor music scales have a whole step, a half step, two whole steps, a half steps, and two whole steps formula: WS-HS-WS-WS-HS-WS-WS.

Harmonic Minor Scale
Raise the seventh note of the scale by a half-step as you go up and down the scale. For example:


Natural C Minor Scale = C - D - Eb - F - G - Ab - Bb - C

Harmonic C Minor Scale = C - D - Eb - F - G - Ab - B - C

Melodic Minor Scale

Raise the sixth and seventh notes of a scale by a half step as you go up the scale and then return to the natural minor as you go down the scale. For example:


Melodic C Minor Scale = C - D - Eb - F - G - A - B - C (as you go up the scale)

Natural C Minor Scale = C - D - Eb - F - G - Ab - Bb - C (as you go down the scale)

More about Music Theory 

Musical Modes

Musical modes are used in several genres of music. They are used to add some specific kind of atmosphere to the music and avoid predictability. You can create a mode by naming a different note at the root instead of the original root of the scale.

Each mode has a very unique sound. E.g. the Phrygian (III) mode sounds melancholic, the Lydian (IV) mode sounds happy, the Mixolydian (V) mode is bluesy, and the Locrian (VII) mode sounds strange so it's rarely used.
Musical modes are different from musical scales. A scale is a series of intervals in a specific order, which - with the key (or first note) - tells you that scale's steps. However, in modern music, a mode is normally used in the sense of scale, applied only to the seven specific diatonic scales (using only the white keys on a piano or keyboard) that follow the first note (or central tone or tonic). Music which contains more than one mode is called polymodal.

All major scales have the same interval sequence W-W-H-W-W-W-H, where "H" means half a step and "W" means a whole step (two semitones). If we talk about musical modes, this interval sequence is called the Ionian or Major mode. It is one of the seven modern modes. There are seven of them because only seven diatonic notes can be used as the tonic (C, D, E, F, G, A, B). If you take any one of the major scales, you can make a new scale by taking a different degree of the major scale as the tonic (first note). It means that all the modes consist of the same notes. The difference among the musical modes is the tonal center. The E Phrygian scale means that the note E is central. In other words, E becomes the tonic, while all the notes remain the same as those of the C-major scale. This concept can be transposed chromatically to every major scale.

The Seven Modes

Ionian (I)
Ionian is usually considered to be the first musical mode. It is identical to the major scale, and begins on C. It consists of C (the tonic or first note), D, E, F, G, A, B, and the upper-octave C. It follows the pattern W-W-H-W-W-W-H. The majority of popular songs are written in the Ionian mode. It's pronounced as [ahy-oh-nee-uhn].

Dorian (II)
Dorian is the second mode, beginning on D. It consists of D (the tonic), E, F, G, A, B, C, and the upper-octave D. It follows the pattern W-H-W-W-W-H-W. The Dorian mode is most common in Celtic music and early American folk songs derived from Irish melodies. Songs written in this mode sound a bit melancholic because the final note doesn't resolve itself. It's pronounced as [dawr-ee-uhn, dohr-].

Phrygian (III)
Phrygian is the third mode, starting on E. It consists of E (the tonic), F, G, A, B, C, D, and the upper-octave E. It follows the pattern H-W-W-W-H-W-W. Modern musicians often use the Phrygian mode because it works well with the Ionian. It's pronounced as [frij-ee-uhn].

Lydian (IV)
Lydian is the fourth mode, starting on F. It consists of F (the tonic), G, A, B, C, D, E, and the upper-octave F. It follows the pattern W-W-W-H-W-W-H. The Lydian mode is the opposite of the Ionian. It feels as solid as a major scale but the intervals are surprising and unexpected. This mode is popular among creative jazz musicians. It's pronounced as [lid-ee-uhn].

Mixolydian (V)
Mixolydian is the fifth mode, beginning on G. It consists of G (the tonic), A, B, C, D, E, F, and the upper-octave G. It follows the pattern W-W-H-W-W-H-W. Mixolydian is similar to Lydian because it also has a major scale feel with minor intervals. The Mixolydian mode is a popular choice for solo musicians who wish to counterpoint the Ionian key of the song. It's pronounced as (ˌmɪksəʊˈlɪdɪən).

Aeolian (VI)
Aeolian is the sixth mode, beginning on A. It is also called the natural minor scale. It consists of an A (the tonic), B, C, D, E, F, G, and the upper-octave, A. It follows the pattern W-H-W-W-H-W-W. The Aeolian mode is still fashionable today but musicians rather refer to it as the minor key. The Aeolian mode creates a modern, sad and bluesy sound. The last note of the Aeolian scale feels resolved differently than the Ionian. It's pronounced as [ee-oh-lee-uhn].

Locrian (VII)
Locrian is the seventh and last mode, and begins on B. It consists of B (the tonic), C, D, E, F, G, A, and the upper-octave B. It follows the pattern H-W-W-H-W-W-W. This mode is so unstable and unsatisfying that it’s rarely used. It's pronounced as [lock-ree-an].

To remember the seven musical modes, many musicians use this memory aid: "I Do F(ph)ollow Lonely Men And Laugh.". The first letters of the words stand for: Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian and Locrian.


Major modes
The Ionian mode is the same as the major scale. Scales in the Lydian mode are major scales with the fourth degree raised a semitone. The Mixolydian mode is the same as the major scale with the seventh degree lowered a semitone.

Minor modes
The Aeolian mode corresponds to the natural minor scale. The Dorian mode is identical to the natural minor scale with the sixth degree raised a semitone. The Phrygian mode is the same as the natural minor scale with the second degree lowered a semitone.

Diminished mode
The Locrian is neither a major nor a minor mode because, although its third scale degree is minor, the fifth degree is diminished instead of perfect. Therefore it is usually called a diminished scale.

If you would like to learn about musical modes in more depth, I recommend The Complete Book of Scales, Chords, Arpeggios and Cadences.

More about Music Theory 

Key Signature Chart

You must have seen a key signature chart, if you've seen sheet music.

Where are key signatures on the staff?

Right after the bass clef or the treble clef. (If you are not familiar with "staff", "bass clef" and "treble clef" I recommend the how to read music notes page of HitJerker-Songwriting. But now back to our main topic here.

What are they?

They are one or more sharp (♯) or flat (♭) symbols right after the clef. Their number and position will tell you what the key of the music is and which notes are sharp of flat in that key (and in that piece music therefore). It's important, however, where you put these sharp and flat symbols. In the illustration below, you'll see what they look like, where you have to place them on the staff, and which keys they belong to.

Why do we use them?

It's much easier to signal that certain notes will be sharp or flat at the beginning of lines of the stuff in sheet music than having to write the sharp or flat symbol each time we encounter such a note. So to simplify writing and reading music, there is a key signature for every major and minor key.

(I borrowed the illustration above from the Learn and Master Piano coursebook. It's a DVD/CD/coursebook course that takes you from beginner to advanced level. I have this course and love it! Especially Will Barrow, the instructor, who is a Grammy-winner pianist and his mimicry and gestures are really fun to look at :))

What's important to know about the stuff you see in the key signature chart?

• If there is a key signature at the beginning of the staff, it's going to be effective for the whole piece unless it's cancelled by a different one.

• They are in a specific order according to the rules of the circle of 5ths.

• C major is the only key that doesn't have any flat or sharp notes in it. All the others contain them. And of course, they either contain flat notes OR sharp notes, these are never mixed. There are some keys, however, that are so called enharmonic. They have two names but are exactly the same. For example, G♭ and F♯.

• You'll see in the key signature chart that sharp key signatures follow each other in a specific oder: F, C, G, D, A, E, B. If you're a fan of mnemonic devices, try memorizing "Father Charles Goes Down And Ends Battle" (because of the initials of course!).

If you look at this list above, you'll see that every scale follows the next that's a 5th above it. And in each scale we add a new sharp note.

• The flat key signatures also follow a specific order: B, E, A, D, G, C, F. If you examine this list, you'll see that it's the same order as in case of the sharp series of notes but it's in a reverse order. Another little mnemonic device to help you remember it: "Battle Ends And Down Goes Charles's Father".

It's similar to the sharp keys but here every scale starts a 5th below (or you could say a 4th above) the former one.

More about Music Theory 

Nashville Number System

The Nashville Number System is similar to sheet music but much simpler. It gives you basic instructions on how to play a song. There is no information about melody, rhythm in this system. It only gives you the chord structure of the song and might also give you some production ideas. It's an awesome method because it leaves plenty of room for the players to interpret the song and improvise as much as they want. Also, charting your songs this way comes handy when you'd like to transcribe music quickly.

By the way, it's not used exclusively in Nashville and by country musicians; even the Beatles used this method to chart their songs!

How to Read and Write Music
Using the Nashville Number System

• Use Roman numerals to represent chords. (In Nashville sometimes they use Arabic numbers but it's easy to confuse with scale notes. So I suggest that you stick with Roman numerals.)

• Decide about the key then check or learn which numbers belong to which chords:

• Put a dash "-" after the chord to show that it's minor.

• Write the numbers by hand on a piece of paper. For some reason, musicians don't print Nashville Number System chord charts.

• Write four measures per line. For example:

1
3
5
1

(4 measures of the 1 chord, four measures of the 3 chord, etc.)

• When musicians read these chords, they will say "thirteen-fifty-one", for example.

• Show the different sections of a song in the chart either by writing the full name of the section or by writing "I" for Intro, "V" for Verse, "C" for Chorus, "B" for Bridge and "TA" for Turnaround.

• Indicate split-bar measures with one of these:

Slash notation: 4/5 (this is the most common one)
Parenthesis notation: (4 5)
Underline notation: 4 5
Box notation: 4 5 (in a box)

They mean that there is two beats of the 4 chord and two beats of 5 chord in a measure.

• Don't confuse the slash notation with slash chords!

• Sometimes chord lengths are not split evenly in a measure so you can put dots (or sometimes hash marks) above the chord. This way we can see how many beats a certain chord gets, for example:

… .
4/5

• Sometimes a chord doesn't receive a full beat. In that case, we use the method of regular sheet music and write the rhythm above the chords in question. If you don't know how to read sheet music, I recommend that you study at least the basics. It will be tremendous help in your songwriting career.

• If you would like to use a 7th chord, indicate it the following way:

C becomes 1
C7 becomes 1 and 7 in the upper right corner
Cmaj7 becomes 1△
Cmin7 becomes 1-7

• To represent a diminished chord, put a little circle after the number.

• To chart an augmented chord, use a plus sign "+" after the number.

• If you use a different bass note, you don't use a slash in the Nashville Number System but represent it as a fraction. The top number stands for the number of the chord, and the bottom number stands for the bass note. For example:
4
-
1

• A walkup or walkdown is a rising or falling movement between chords. In the Nashville Number System, use an arrow pointing up or down to show this tendency.

• Sometimes you'll see a diamond in these kind of charts. They mean that you should let the chord ring for its duration to make this specific part of your music more emphatic.

• If you want to do the opposite, that is not let the chord ring for long, you should use a stop sign, i.e. two slash marks, like this:
1//


These are the basics of the Nashville Numbering System. If you would like to get really proficient at this "language", I recommend Chas Williams's book, The Nashville Number System. It tells you how this system came to existence and gives you step-by-step instructions on how to chart any song.

More Music Theory